Recommendation for award Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Recommendation for award - Essay Example During this period, I came to know Ms. Jessica Martinez very well. I observed the passion she put in her work and the professionalism with which she coordinated her activities. She normally efficiently managed her time. However, when the workload was too much, Ms. Jessica Martinez would leave later than usual. I have also observed her special attention to details. She always maintained very safe, clean, and organized working environment. Ms. Jessica Martinez is a highly devoted person. I would like to mention that Ms. Jessica Martinez has contributed a lot in starting-up and straightening this school. She has worked closely with the entire school’s committee to enhance the school’s prestige. She has worked hard to develop the school’s educational program and the extra-curricular activities. She is very committed to delivering high quality learning standards. In order to improve the student’s learning abilities and diversify the courses, she has identified unique teaching techniques. Ms. Jessica Martinez succeeds in creating a special connection with her students. They are truly fond of her, because she is very affectionate and protective towards them. She can immediately sense the children’s needs. She is also liked and respected by their parents. I remember once, a parent forgot her purse along with her credit cards, and Ms. Jessica Martinez immediately contacted the parent and returned the purse, under my supervision, following our schools’ internal procedures. In addition, I would like to stress that Ms. Jessica Martinez has a degree in early education. This degree will certainly make her more than qualified to become a

Study on the Internet Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Study on the Internet - Assignment Example PhD is most likely a level that a researcher must examine any subject of choice in details, for a number of years in his or her course. In this sense, it was decided to study the matter of sample size in PhD studies’ context. The two major concerns of this study were to find out the number of participants who make use of qualitative interviews in their PhD studies, and if this numbers differ depending on the procedural approach. The method of the study A PhD database content analysis was carried out on the â€Å"Index To Theses: A comprehensive listing of theses with abstracts accepted for higher degrees by universities in Great Britain and Ireland since 1716†. This research was performed between the third of August, and twenty forth of August, 2009 (Mason, 2010). In the collection, 532,646 abstracts were used to discover PhD studies, indicating that they had utilized qualitative interviews to collect information. To find out any dissimilarity between diverse research t echniques, a classification of 26 varying qualitative research techniques from different disciplines were used. The methodological traditions were classified into four groups, namely: discovery of regularities, reflection, language characteristics, and comprehension of action or text meaning (Gravetter & Forzano, 2011). The researchers used a â€Å"standard search† with a number of parameters applied: if â€Å"any field† entailed â€Å"insert methodology†; if â€Å"any field† entailed interviews†; and if â€Å"Degrees† entailed PhD. The study looked solely at the use of individual to individual personal interviewing, meaning that focus groups were excluded from this analysis. The outstanding studies were collected using samples. A search on the abstracts was carried out and the following details were recorded on each: category of qualitative research; the methods used; and the number of interviewees who participated (Mason, 2010). Findings Th e findings by the authors indicated that in general, the range of the participant numbers used was between 95 and 1. Of the 560 studies examined, the mean and median were 31 and 28 respectively, perhaps suggesting that the central dispersion measures were consistent in general. It was clear that some approaches used interviews in their methodologies than others. Out of the 26 qualitative methods, 9 returned over 10 studies. The most popular techniques utilized in PhD studies as per this analysis were: life history, grounded theory method, discourse analysis, case study, phenomenology, content analysis, hermeneutics, action research, and symbolic interactionism. Case study projects were the most frequently utilized interviews; 1,401, while the grounded theory accounted for 429, with an inclusion criteria of 41%. On the other hand, qualitative evaluation accounted for the highest mean in the number of participants at 42, while ethnography communication recorded the lowest at 34. Discu ssion The most popular sample sizes were 30 and 20. Forty, ten, and twenty five followed the sequence. The considerable high proportion of studies using the multiples of ten to act as their sample stands out as the most vital finding of this analysis (Rubin & Babbie, 2009). There is no hypothesis-driven or logical reason why samples that end with any single integer would prevail than another in qualitative PhD researches that uses interviews. If the directing concept for qualitative resea

The Power of a Complaint Letter Essay Example for Free

The Power of a Complaint Letter Essay Every business hungers to be successful. Businesses want to put their best foot forward, and their best product to the consumer. However, on occasion, people become upset or disappointed when the product or service does not reach expectation. In this case, businesses often receive the dreaded complaint letter from customers. The purpose of a complaint letter is to bring a grievance to the attention of an owner or manager of the business, so action can be taken as soon as possible. When writing a complaint letter it is important to include appeals to the audience, structure of the letter, tone, and context. Also keep in mind, that playing into the emotions by usage of ethos, pathos, and logos can positively sway the result. Three complaint letters written by Ken Thomas, Chad Bradley, and Kyle Westergren are about having recently bought a pair of shoes from Reebok, PUMA, and Cool Sports Inc. Complaint letters are the reason that businesses strive to please their customers, and take into consideration the constructive criticism of another person. Before crafting an effective complaint letter, one must first realize who their audience is, and what the purpose is. Consider who will be reading the letter and how likely or unlikely it is that the recipient will be sympathetic toward the complaint presented. Be clear on solutions given, and what can be done in return to fix the problem. The writers of a complaint letter want to address their issue by appealing to a specific audience. This audience could be board members, general managers, or even CEOs. In this case, the three complaint letters written by Thomas, Bradley, and Westergren, have expressed their problem to the general managers of the stores in which they purchased the shoes, and are seeking some sort of credit towards a new pair of shoes. By asking for a credit, one also wants to provide the reader with reason as to why restitution is being asked of, which is why one must first recognize the organization and structure of a persuasive complaint letter. The basic context and structure of a complaint letter is pretty simple. Usually, the letters will first contain a heading in the upper left hand corner. It will include all the credentials of the writer and business, including the address of both the addresser and addressee. Then, there is a greeting, such as â€Å"Dear Sir or Madam†. I have written a complaint letter before and usually put â€Å"To Whom It May Concern†, because it may be forwarded to different departments of the company. The opening paragraph should also include context of the situation. The context is basically a form of background information. In the letter written by Chad Bradley, he explains how he had left his shoes in his front porch overnight, and now they had shrunk at least three sizes (Bradley). This type of information should help picture the situation and should provide the writer’s problem to the reader. An account or tracking number can also be beneficial to the reader so that he or she may reference the order, see exactly what was purchased, and how much of a credit should be given if need be. The next section of the letter should include relevant dates or times of when the merchandise was purchased. In the letter to Cool Sports Inc. by Ken Thomas, he explains the chain of dates throughout his order. â€Å"I had been looking at your website since the beginning of June, placed my order on June 21st, and received my package on June 26th† (Thomas). This clarification of time can help the reader produce a timeframe of the events. The last section of a well-written complaint letter explains what type of restitution the writer wishes to receive; it shows the reader of the assertiveness the writer is trying to prove, without being rude or offensive. â€Å"To resolve the problem, I would like you to credit my account for the amount charged on my credit card† (Thomas) explains what Thomas would like done in order to please him, and resolve the issue. When writing a complaint letter, one does not want to be rude to the reader, because a temperamental, rude letter will not go far. By being assertive, yet respectful, one can achieve proper settlement. Now that a basic structure is known when writing a complaint letter, one must appeal to the reader by use of logic. Appealing to logic, or logos, includes both an overall argument and the evidence used to support the argument. To build an effective argument, one must first provide some sort of background information to provide the reader with context as to why the letter is being written in the first place. This was done in the previous paragraph to also show the chain of events in order for the reader to know the timeframe of the situation. In Westergren’s letter, he clearly states why he is upset: â€Å"The problem came when these sneakers turned out no different than the last two pairs, and fell apart. I expect quality when making a purchase, especially when spending almost $100 on shoes. † Westergren clearly states his problem, and I feel he plays a little bit into pathos as well by accusing the company of selling low quality materials. Once one has identified their primary arguments, provide supporting evidence such as details as to what happened to the product, how long ago the product was purchased, and were there other products of the same brand that this has also happened to. By explaining this information to them, it can provide the company with the knowledge that it may not have happened to just you, the writer, but other valued customers as well. Logical appeals are most effective in complaint letters when they are based on both reasoning and credible, supporting evidence. Some people feel it is beneficial to play the â€Å"poor me† card when writing a letter, by directly channeling to the readers moral emotion; pathos. When appealing to readers’ emotions, or pathos, one can also strengthen a complaint letter, especially when wanting to convince the audience. Emotional appeals can be engaging to the audience, but the use of pathos should be appropriate to the situation and the audience. If one is writing a letter of complaint to a shoe manufacturer, in this case, with the intention of receiving a replacement product or account credit, one should appeal to the readers emotions in such a way that she or he can identify with the same concerns so that it does not happen again. Bradley explains in his letter beforehand that this is his only pair of running shoes, works at a gym, and does an incredible job in his last paragraph of expressing pathos. I blame Reebok as much as myself for the shrunken shoes, but now I am worried that I may lose my job, and I do not know where else to turn† (Bradley). By this statement, he is invoking the reader to feel sorry for him, and assuring he is unable to do his job without a pair of running shoes. On the other hand, avoid expressing emotion in such a way that your audience will feel angered or aliena ted. This type of slander will only anger the manager or owner, and nothing will be done of the issue. In complaint letters, one can make strong emotional ties through the use of compelling supporting evidence and persuasive language. One must also make sure to not forget the powerful evidence of credibility when trying to prove the worthiness of a settlement. Appealing to authority, or ethos, begins with one’s own credibility or trustworthiness. In a complaint letter, one can appeal to authority through overall tone as the writer. One must convince the audience of respectfulness towards them and truthfulness about the subject. One can do this by using language that is fair and unbiased. One can also use examples and illustrations that show how well-known the subject is. Such evidence could be how long one has known the business or been a customer since. Westergren provides a perfect example of establishing his credibility in his opening paragraph. â€Å"I really enjoy the style and type of sneaker your company makes (PUMA) because it is a unique style, and that is my reasoning for being a repeat customer for more than 5 years. By stating this, Westergren shows that he has been a satisfied customer for over five years, and now is shocked that he found a flaw in this company, which is the reason he is now writing this letter. Another example comes from Ken Thomas’s letter: â€Å"I have been a satisfied customer for many years, and this is the first time I have encountered a problem with your company. † This quote also shows that Thomas has been a customer for many years, and is also shocked to have had an issue. By stating that you, as a customer, have bought many years’ worth of merchandise from a company or business shows that you, as the customer, know what quality is expected. Taking the time to use ethos in a complaint letter helps to build greater trust and establishes credibility in a positive way for the writer. Lastly, the tone of the writer can cause all of the other appeals to be thrown out, because if the writer has a tone where it is insulting, slandering, or rude, the reader will toss it aside. In order to have the letter read, one must appeal to an assertive, yet polite form of writing. Tone by definition is the writers’ attitude toward the reader, and subject of the message. â€Å"Me, I prefer to stay with the classics: a nice suit, a warm cardigan, socks from Marks Spencer, that kind of thing† (Bradley) shows that Bradley is almost joking with the reader when he writes this statement. He is trying to form a personal connection with the reader, because the reader might agree with his form of style. I feel that by opening yourself up to the reader will show that anger, haste, and revenge are not in the idea behind the letter, but simply the need for a credit, or new pair of hoes. The purpose of a complaint letter is not to slander or be disrespectful to the company or business, but to state your opinion, the problem, and a reasonable solution so that you, as the customer, can tell others of the experience, and provide positive feedback to others as well. By using logic to explain the problem, pathos to explain the problems that are now happening, and ethos to establish why a credit should be received, a writer of a complaint letter can easily earn the respect from a business. By also appealing to the context, which provides background information of the situation, and audience to provide a stance as to who you are trying to reach out to, and voice to still be respectful to the reader, one can ultimately put together a fierce argument, with solid evidence, and an all-around worthy letter. Businesses are always striving to have the highest ratings of their customers, and by taking in the criticism of a few letters, can provide the highest quality service possible.

Use of the Classical Tragic Mold in Shakespeares Macbeth :: Macbeth essays

Macbeth: The Use of the Classical Tragic Mold in Character Development In Shakespeare's tragedy, Macbeth, there are many characters. Only one character stands out, and his name is in the title of the play. Macbeth's character was made in the mold of the ancient Greek tragic hero. Besides being endowed by Shakespeare with an abundance and variety of potential traits and characteristics, Macbeth also follows the Classical Tragic Mold, which is presented with a hefty supply of hubris, and in this case, ambition. Because Macbeth follows the Classical Tragic Mold, he is a Classical Tragic Hero. The first step of the Classical Tragic Mold is recognizing the problem. The problem in Macbeth is not a true problem that presents itself outwardly. The problem for the character of Macbeth is deciding if he should listen to his ambition and kill Duncan. At first, he ponders reasons why not to kill his king. He at first thinks that he cannot kill him because of four reasons: Macbeth is Duncan's subject, Duncan is a good king, they are blood-related, and Macbeth is his host. These reasons dissuade Macbeth at first, but later Lady Macbeth convinces him, by questioning his manhood, to commit the dastardly crime. When he finally murders Duncan, the problem comes to closure. But, even long before then, the next step in the mold had begun: the descent into the abyss. The "decent into the abyss" is the second step in the Classical Tragic Mold. It is started with Macbeth's second soliloquy. This is after Macbeth hears from Duncan that Malcolm was to be named the Prince of Cumberland. "The Prince of Cumberland! That is a step on which I must fall down, or else o'erleap, for in my way it lies ... Let not light see my black and deep desires." (Shakespeare, 281). This quote from the soliloquy indicates that Macbeth has, indeed, told himself that he will commit the murder of Duncan, although he doesn't actually admit it until his wife pressures him to do so. With this decision, the reader (or audience) reads (or sees) that Macbeth is straying from the righteous path, and descending into the abyss, even though he is keeping his feelings to himself. His decision to murder Duncan tarnishes his "war hero" image and casts it in an ominous shadow. The third step in the mold has two parts and is known as Transformation and Transcendence. The character of Macbeth goes into Transformation during his fourth soliloquy. "...I have lived long enough. My way of life is fall'n into the sear..." (Shakespeare, 343).

Bribery Scandal @ Siemens

Case Analysis by Steve Akana steve. [email  protected] edu BUS 685 Global Business Management Case 1 – The Bribery Scandal at Siemens AG Overview The report will analyze the case study and discuss the bribery scandal at Siemens AG. The author of the case study paints a picture of a successful and arguably dominant multi-national firm, with a reputation for a war chest of competencies and innovative products. The obvious question, then, is why would a firm with this resume and list of global achievements become involved with corruption and criminal behavior?Therefore, the case study raised questions such as the accountability of senior managers to the rampant corruption occurring in global divisions. Summary On November 15, 2006, 30 offices and private homes were raided by 200 police officers, tax inspectors, and prosecutors in Munch and other cities in Germany to investigate suspected bribery, embezzlement of company funds, and tax evasion. Five Siemens employees were taken into custody in connection with the case. Swiss prosecutors were also involved in the raids because they had an independent investigation on three people connected to Siemens, which launched in 2005.As a result, there was â‚ ¬420M of questionable payments made over a sevenyear period from 1999 to 2006. Official Siemens records showed the payments as having gone to external consultants. It was determined, however, that the funds were actually paid to foreign purchasing officials and that the expenditures coincided with the procurement of â€Å"fixed-line line telecommunications business in various international markets,† including Italy, Puerto Rico, Greece, and the United States. Siemens acknowledged that certain company employees were engaged in fraud, and the damage to the company could be around â‚ ¬10-30M.Because of the fraud Siemen’s was burdened with an additional â‚ ¬168M in income tax charges since 1999. Their net profit was restated from â‚ ¬3. 106 B to â‚ ¬3. 033B. By the spring of 2007, two former Siemens managers were convicted of embezzlement of company funds (â‚ ¬6M) for the purpose of bribing foreign officials to win a natural-gas turbine contract. The employees argued that their actions did not violate any laws, resulted in no personal gain, and were taken solely for the purpose of improving Siemens’ positioning.They argued that they worked only to secure a lucrative deal in which the payments were required by Enel management as part of the standard bid process. In fact, Siemens AG argued that the court order requiring forfeiture of earnings from the contract, prior to 2002 when the German government instituted a law prohibiting bribes to private officials abroad, specifically, had no basis in law. Analysis It took approximately 200 government officials, made up of police officers, tax inspectors, and prosecutors to indite five Siemens employees.The result was that the company was fined â‚ ¬30M, which wa s approximately 7% of the total â‚ ¬420M in bribes Siemens paid out. Combined, Siemens lost a total of â‚ ¬450M in 2006. Therefore, the company had to restate their net profits for 2006 from â‚ ¬3. 106B to â‚ ¬3. 033B. The adjustment was a mere 1. 4% of their total net profits in 2006. Two Siemens employees gave out bribes worth â‚ ¬6M in order to win contracts. The punishment for these briberies was a fine of â‚ ¬44M; however, the contract awarded to Siemens was worth â‚ ¬450M.Therefore, the company’s gain was a profit of â‚ ¬406M. The penalties Siemens paid were roughly 10% of the overall profit made from the contract. So was it worth it for Siemens to engage in criminal behavior? The punishment they received of paying fines varying up to 10 percent were only a drop in the bucket compared to the profits they gained. So from the viewpoint of a Siemens employee who is willing to break the law in order to gain large profits, it was definitely worth it.A s a matter of fact, if a company anticipates the percentage of penalties that will be applied for breaking the law, they could actually build that figure into their contract award fee and then move on with the business as usual. Furthermore, in addition to the financial repercussions Siemens experienced, the case study also mentioned damages to their reputation. In the end, however, Siemens’ growing profits did not reveal any decreases due to a damaged reputation. By 2011, Siemens ended up making more money than they had in the last five years, since 2007. From 1999 to 2006, their combined net income was â‚ ¬26. 3B (over seven years), and from 2011 to 2007, their combined net income was â‚ ¬31. 95B (over five years). Discussion Questions 1. Is unethical behavior the cost of doing business? What exactly is the role of Senior Managers? 2. Was Siemens penalized enough? Should fines be used as a deterrent to bribery? Are these the effects of the absence of adequate laws or weak enforcement practices? 3. Relativism vs. Normativism (Co-Determination Law). Relativism is the idea that ethics and morals are based on the context of a situation; the people involved, and their beliefs.Normativism is the idea of universal law based on what is good for everyone alike. So in this situation, would it be more appropriate to view Siemens’ actions in the context that they were simply trying to make profits? Conversely, would it be more appropriate to view the situation as what might be good for one company is not good for others, creating an unfair playing field? Would you apply relativism or Normativism to this case study when examining the Co-Determination Law? 4. Can you discuss in your own words, what is the difference between lobbying and bribery?Recommendations 1. Executive Ethics Program – Mandate that anyone equal to or above a director level to undergo a specialized business ethics and regulations program for executives. We should hold the gov ernment responsible to provide this training. The program would be taught by people who enforce the law, such as litigation lawyers and prosecutors. Training the people in the company at the level where the bribes derive from is much more appropriate than mandating a company-wide training where only lower level employees will end up receiving this training. 2.Levy Stricter Fines – Any company caught giving bribes for any reason will not be allowed to keep the profits they made as a result from the contracts won. The fines the company will owe to the government will be the equivalent to the gains received or the potential value of the contract being awarded. If the company is found guilty, they must walk away from the contract, allowing other companies that did not break the law to rebid on the contract. 3. Two Years of Probation – companies that break the law will not be allowed to bid on any contracts in the industry in which the contract existed, i. . a contract with an Energy Company would prevent further bids on any contracts in the energy industry for two years. Lessons Learned 1. 2. 3. 4. A strong ethical culture is critical for effective corporate governance. Merely publicizing the need for integrity won’t bring it about. Senior executives need to know what is going on throughout the organization. Strong internal control is more important in a widely dispersed and decentralized company. 5. A focus on â€Å"making the numbers† will never be successful in the long run. Questions still needing to be answered 1.How acceptable are bribes and kickbacks in industrialized countries? 2. Who will go to jail, and how much will the financial settlements cost Siemens? 3. What will be the effect of the scandal on Siemens’s strategic plans to acquire/dispose of business units? 4. Where were the internal and external auditors? 5. Can an outsider like new CEO Loscher really change an entrenched corporate culture? Reference Deresky, Hel en. (2011). International Management: Managing Across Borders and Cultures (7th Edition ed. ). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

Commerce 101 - The Business Administration Certificate 2019

A certificate in business is an introductory program to the world of business, an educational option that can be invaluable to those of us who need a change midstream or otherwise. It is an opening gambit for people who recognize the value of graduate work in business and who would like to open a business but have little understanding of the operational basics. Typically, a business certificate program is a one year introduction to the principles and practices of business, although some schools offer concentrated courses that can be completed in a shorter period. Often you will find that a school will provide for areas of concentration within their certificate offerings. One institution offers a business essentials concentration, an MBA foundation, and an international business concentration. With those options you can have your eye on entrepreneurship, an MBA, or a leg up when applying for a midlevel position with a multinational corporation. A business certificate is a solid initial step in continuing education for those wishing to crack the business world and can contribute to a resume in virtually any job search. Not much has changed since Calvin Coolidge commented that The business of America is business. Courses typically will range through statistics, accounting practices, the fundamentals of economics and other business basics. But those interested will also find instruction on marketing, guidelines for handling personnel and import- export practices. Capella University offers a certificate in Professional Project Management. Boston University Metropolitan College offers certificates in Business Management, Marketing, and International Business Management. There are enough business certificate programs now available that students can browse for the areas of concentration in which they are interested. .ud94ada226a35a666b5c968b155f34afa { padding:0px; margin: 0; padding-top:1em!important; padding-bottom:1em!important; width:100%; display: block; font-weight:bold; background-color:#eaeaea; border:0!important; border-left:4px solid #34495E!important; box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -moz-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -o-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); text-decoration:none; } .ud94ada226a35a666b5c968b155f34afa:active, .ud94ada226a35a666b5c968b155f34afa:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; text-decoration:none; } .ud94ada226a35a666b5c968b155f34afa { transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; } .ud94ada226a35a666b5c968b155f34afa .ctaText { font-weight:bold; color:inherit; text-decoration:none; font-size: 16px; } .ud94ada226a35a666b5c968b155f34afa .post Title { color:#000000; text-decoration: underline!important; font-size: 16px; } .ud94ada226a35a666b5c968b155f34afa:hover .postTitle { text-decoration: underline!important; } READ Top Internship Mistakes to AvoidSome programs offer just the basics. One accredited online college has a business certificate program that can be done in as little as six months, if you have the time to devote to it. Some certificate programs are designed to sharpen the skills and broaden the opportunities for people who have secured a professional position. For that reason, many of their courses are taught at night and/or online. It is important for potential students to keep in mind that distance learning opportunities are expanding rapidly. If an established campus has a program that interests the individual, a simple phone call will indicate whether that program has been made available online. A certificate in business can lead in a number of directions but, most importantly, it will get the potential student noticed. Student can tailor the certificate classes to focus on their professional area of interest. They come in all sorts of packages as well: online, in the classroom, at night; through local institutions and virtual universities. If the desire to move forward in the business world exists, the business certificate is a great first step. .ua9614463c8f10014df30fcb78829a720 { padding:0px; margin: 0; padding-top:1em!important; padding-bottom:1em!important; width:100%; display: block; font-weight:bold; background-color:#eaeaea; border:0!important; border-left:4px solid #34495E!important; box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -moz-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -o-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); -webkit-box-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.17); text-decoration:none; } .ua9614463c8f10014df30fcb78829a720:active, .ua9614463c8f10014df30fcb78829a720:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; text-decoration:none; } .ua9614463c8f10014df30fcb78829a720 { transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; } .ua9614463c8f10014df30fcb78829a720 .ctaText { font-weight:bold; color:inherit; text-decoration:none; font-size: 16px; } .ua9614463c8f10014df30fcb78829a720 .post Title { color:#000000; text-decoration: underline!important; font-size: 16px; } .ua9614463c8f10014df30fcb78829a720:hover .postTitle { text-decoration: underline!important; } READ Heroes of The Information Technology BusinessRelated ArticlesThe Perks of Joining the World of International Business DegreesGetting Started With a Career in BusinessA Crash Course in Business AdministrationWhy not an MBAAn Education in Business Accounting AYour Entrepreneurship in Your Enterprise

Lower Paleolithic The Changes Marked by the Early Stone Age

The Lower Paleolithic period, also known as the Early Stone Age, is currently believed to have lasted from between about 2.7 million years ago to 200,000 years ago. It is the first archaeological period in prehistory: that is to say, that period when the first evidence of what scientists consider human behaviors have been found, including stone tool making and the human use and control of fire. The beginning of the Lower Paleolithic is traditionally marked when the first known stone tool manufacture occurred, and so that date changes as we continue to find evidence for tool-making behavior. Currently, the earliest stone tool tradition is called the Oldowan tradition, and Oldowan tools have been found at sites in the Olduvai Gorge in Africa dated to 2.5-1.5 million years ago. The earliest stone tools discovered so far are at Gona and Bouri in Ethiopia and (a little later) Lokalalei in Kenya. The Lower Paleolithic diet was based on the consumption of scavenged or (at least by the Acheulean period of 1.4 million years ago) hunted large-sized (elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus) and medium-sized (horse, cattle, deer) mammals. The Rise of the Hominins The behavioral changes seen during the Lower Paleolithic are ascribed to the evolution of the hominin ancestors of human beings, including Australopithecus, and especially Homo erectus / Homo ergaster. Stone tools of the Paleolithic include Acheulean handaxes and cleavers; these suggest that most humans of the earliest period were scavengers rather than hunters. Lower Paleolithic sites are also characterized by the presence of extinct animal types dated to the Early or Middle Pleistocene. Evidence seems to suggest that the controlled use of fire was figured out sometime during the LP. Leaving Africa It is currently believed that the human beings known as Homo erectus left Africa and traveled into Eurasia along the Levantine belt. The earliest yet discovered H. erectus / H. ergaster site outside of Africa is the Dmanisi site in Georgia, dated about 1.7 million years ago. Ubeidiya, located close to the Sea of Galilee, is another early H. erectus site, dated to 1.4-1.7 million years ago. The Acheulean sequence (sometimes spelled Acheulian), a Lower to Middle Paleolithic stone tool tradition, was established in sub-Sarahan Africa, about 1.4 million years ago. The Acheulean toolkit is dominated by stone flakes, but also includes the first bifacially worked tools--tools made by working both sides of a cobble. The Acheulean is divided into three major categories: Lower, Middle, and Upper. The Lower and Middle have been assigned to the Lower Paleolithic period. Over 200 Lower Paleolithic sites are known in the Levant corridor, although only a handful have been excavated: Israel: Evron Quarry, Gesher Benot Yaaqov, Holon, Revadim, Tabun cave, Umm QatafaSyria: Latamne, GharmachiJordan: Ain Soda, Lions SpringTurkey: Sehrmuz and Kaltepe Ending the Lower Paleolithic The end of the LP is debatable and varies from place to place, and so some scholars just consider the period one long sequence, referring to it as the Earlier Paleolithic. I chose 200,000 as an ending point rather arbitrarily, but it is about the point when Mousterian technologies take over from Acheulean industries as the tool of choice for our hominin ancestors. Behavioral patterns for the end of the Lower Paleolithic (400,000-200,000 years ago) include blade production, systematic hunting and butchering techniques, and meat-sharing habits. Late Lower Paleolithic hominins probably hunted large game animals with hand-held wooden spears, used cooperative hunting strategies and delayed consumption of high-quality meat parts until they could be moved to a home base. Lower Paleolithic Hominins: Australopithecus 4.4-2.2 million years ago. Australopithecus was small and gracile, with an average brain size of 440 cubic centimeters. They were scavengers and were the first to walk on two legs. Ethiopia: Lucy, Selam, Bouri.South Africa: Taung, Makapansgat, Sterkfontein, SedibaTanzania: Laetoli Lower Paleolithic Hominins: Homo erectus / Homo ergaster ca. 1.8 million to 250,000 years ago. First early human to find its way out of Africa. H. erectus was both heavier and taller than Australopithecus, and a more efficient walker, with an average brain size of about 820 cc. They were the first human with a projecting nose, and their skulls were long and low with large brow ridges. Africa: Olorgesailie (Kenya), Bodo Cranium (Ethiopia), Bouri (Ethiopia), Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania), Kokiselei Complex (Kenya)China: Zhoukoudian, Ngandong, Peking Man, Dali CraniumSiberia: Diring Yuriakh (still somewhat controversial)Indonesia: Sangiran,  Trinil,  Ngandong, Mojokerto, Sambungmacan  (all in Java)  Middle East: Gesher Benot Yaaqov (Israel, maybe not H. erectus), Kaletepe Deresi 3 (Turkey)Europe: Dmanisi (Georgia), Torralba and Ambrona (Spain), Gran Dolina (Spain), Bilzingsleben (Germany), Pakefield (UK), Sima de los Huesos (Spain) Sources Agam A, Marder O, and Barkai R. 2015. Small flake production and lithic recycling at Late Acheulian Revadim, Israel. Quaternary International 361:46-60.Bar-Yosef O. 2008. . In: Pearsall DM, editor. Encyclopedia of Archaeology. New York: Academic Press. p 865-875.Gopher A, Ayalon A, Bar-Matthews M, Barkai R, Frumkin A, Karkanas P, and Shahack-Gross R. 2010. The chronology of the late Lower Paleolithic in the Levant based on U-Th ages of speleothems from Qesem Cave, Israel. Quaternary Geochronology 5(6):644-656.Pickering TR, Egeland CP, Domà ­nguez-Rodrigo M, Brain CK, and Schnell AG. 2008. Testing the shift in the balance of power hypothesis at Swartkrans, South Africa: Hominid cave use and subsistence behavior in the Early Pleistocene. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 27(1):30-45.Stahlschmidt MC, Miller CE, Ligouis B, Hambach U, Goldberg P, Berna F, Richter D, Urban B, Serangeli J, and Conard NJ. 2015. On the evidence for human use and control of fire at Schà ¶ningen. Journal of Human Evolution 89:181-201.Stiner MC, Barkai R, and Gopher A. 2009. Cooperative hunting and meat sharing 400–200 kya at Qesem Cave, Israel. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106(32):13207-13212.Stout D, Hecht E, Khreisheh N, Bradley B, and Chaminade T. 2015. Cognitive Demands of Lower Paleolithic Toolmaking. 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