Lower Paleolithic The Changes Marked by the Early Stone Age

The Lower Paleolithic period, also known as the Early Stone Age, is currently believed to have lasted from between about 2.7 million years ago to 200,000 years ago. It is the first archaeological period in prehistory: that is to say, that period when the first evidence of what scientists consider human behaviors have been found, including stone tool making and the human use and control of fire. The beginning of the Lower Paleolithic is traditionally marked when the first known stone tool manufacture occurred, and so that date changes as we continue to find evidence for tool-making behavior. Currently, the earliest stone tool tradition is called the Oldowan tradition, and Oldowan tools have been found at sites in the Olduvai Gorge in Africa dated to 2.5-1.5 million years ago. The earliest stone tools discovered so far are at Gona and Bouri in Ethiopia and (a little later) Lokalalei in Kenya. The Lower Paleolithic diet was based on the consumption of scavenged or (at least by the Acheulean period of 1.4 million years ago) hunted large-sized (elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus) and medium-sized (horse, cattle, deer) mammals. The Rise of the Hominins The behavioral changes seen during the Lower Paleolithic are ascribed to the evolution of the hominin ancestors of human beings, including Australopithecus, and especially Homo erectus / Homo ergaster. Stone tools of the Paleolithic include Acheulean handaxes and cleavers; these suggest that most humans of the earliest period were scavengers rather than hunters. Lower Paleolithic sites are also characterized by the presence of extinct animal types dated to the Early or Middle Pleistocene. Evidence seems to suggest that the controlled use of fire was figured out sometime during the LP. Leaving Africa It is currently believed that the human beings known as Homo erectus left Africa and traveled into Eurasia along the Levantine belt. The earliest yet discovered H. erectus / H. ergaster site outside of Africa is the Dmanisi site in Georgia, dated about 1.7 million years ago. Ubeidiya, located close to the Sea of Galilee, is another early H. erectus site, dated to 1.4-1.7 million years ago. The Acheulean sequence (sometimes spelled Acheulian), a Lower to Middle Paleolithic stone tool tradition, was established in sub-Sarahan Africa, about 1.4 million years ago. The Acheulean toolkit is dominated by stone flakes, but also includes the first bifacially worked tools--tools made by working both sides of a cobble. The Acheulean is divided into three major categories: Lower, Middle, and Upper. The Lower and Middle have been assigned to the Lower Paleolithic period. Over 200 Lower Paleolithic sites are known in the Levant corridor, although only a handful have been excavated: Israel: Evron Quarry, Gesher Benot Yaaqov, Holon, Revadim, Tabun cave, Umm QatafaSyria: Latamne, GharmachiJordan: Ain Soda, Lions SpringTurkey: Sehrmuz and Kaltepe Ending the Lower Paleolithic The end of the LP is debatable and varies from place to place, and so some scholars just consider the period one long sequence, referring to it as the Earlier Paleolithic. I chose 200,000 as an ending point rather arbitrarily, but it is about the point when Mousterian technologies take over from Acheulean industries as the tool of choice for our hominin ancestors. Behavioral patterns for the end of the Lower Paleolithic (400,000-200,000 years ago) include blade production, systematic hunting and butchering techniques, and meat-sharing habits. Late Lower Paleolithic hominins probably hunted large game animals with hand-held wooden spears, used cooperative hunting strategies and delayed consumption of high-quality meat parts until they could be moved to a home base. Lower Paleolithic Hominins: Australopithecus 4.4-2.2 million years ago. Australopithecus was small and gracile, with an average brain size of 440 cubic centimeters. They were scavengers and were the first to walk on two legs. Ethiopia: Lucy, Selam, Bouri.South Africa: Taung, Makapansgat, Sterkfontein, SedibaTanzania: Laetoli Lower Paleolithic Hominins: Homo erectus / Homo ergaster ca. 1.8 million to 250,000 years ago. First early human to find its way out of Africa. H. erectus was both heavier and taller than Australopithecus, and a more efficient walker, with an average brain size of about 820 cc. They were the first human with a projecting nose, and their skulls were long and low with large brow ridges. Africa: Olorgesailie (Kenya), Bodo Cranium (Ethiopia), Bouri (Ethiopia), Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania), Kokiselei Complex (Kenya)China: Zhoukoudian, Ngandong, Peking Man, Dali CraniumSiberia: Diring Yuriakh (still somewhat controversial)Indonesia: Sangiran,  Trinil,  Ngandong, Mojokerto, Sambungmacan  (all in Java)  Middle East: Gesher Benot Yaaqov (Israel, maybe not H. erectus), Kaletepe Deresi 3 (Turkey)Europe: Dmanisi (Georgia), Torralba and Ambrona (Spain), Gran Dolina (Spain), Bilzingsleben (Germany), Pakefield (UK), Sima de los Huesos (Spain) Sources Agam A, Marder O, and Barkai R. 2015. Small flake production and lithic recycling at Late Acheulian Revadim, Israel. Quaternary International 361:46-60.Bar-Yosef O. 2008. . In: Pearsall DM, editor. Encyclopedia of Archaeology. New York: Academic Press. p 865-875.Gopher A, Ayalon A, Bar-Matthews M, Barkai R, Frumkin A, Karkanas P, and Shahack-Gross R. 2010. The chronology of the late Lower Paleolithic in the Levant based on U-Th ages of speleothems from Qesem Cave, Israel. Quaternary Geochronology 5(6):644-656.Pickering TR, Egeland CP, Domà ­nguez-Rodrigo M, Brain CK, and Schnell AG. 2008. Testing the shift in the balance of power hypothesis at Swartkrans, South Africa: Hominid cave use and subsistence behavior in the Early Pleistocene. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 27(1):30-45.Stahlschmidt MC, Miller CE, Ligouis B, Hambach U, Goldberg P, Berna F, Richter D, Urban B, Serangeli J, and Conard NJ. 2015. On the evidence for human use and control of fire at Schà ¶ningen. Journal of Human Evolution 89:181-201.Stiner MC, Barkai R, and Gopher A. 2009. Cooperative hunting and meat sharing 400–200 kya at Qesem Cave, Israel. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106(32):13207-13212.Stout D, Hecht E, Khreisheh N, Bradley B, and Chaminade T. 2015. Cognitive Demands of Lower Paleolithic Toolmaking. PLoS ONE 10(4):e0121804.Zutovski K, and Barkai R. 2016. The use of elephant bones for making Acheulian handaxes: A fresh look at old bones. Quaternary International 406, Part B:227-238.

Motivation And Motivation The Surprising Truth About...

Motivation in Education The standard way of thinking about motivation has it that the only way to get people to be driven is to reward them extrinsically. In other words, the way we generally try to motivate people is by dangling a carrot in front of their face, or pushing them with a poke to the ribs with stick. Many people assume that if you want someone to do something, you incentivize them with external compensation. For example, if you want a student to work harder in class, offer them extra credits. If you want your basketball team to be better, make them run more suicides as punishment. However, in this book, Drive: ’’The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us’’ by Daniel Pink challenges this conventional, preconceived notion of motivation of carrot and stick mentality. Pink divided motivation into three categories that evolved over time: motivation 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0. In the first chapter, Pink offered different ways of human drives that motivate. The first one was motiv ation 1.0: struggling to obtain our basic needs to survive, biological drives of food, water, and sex. Yet, it wasn t enough, and then people replaced it, with the second drive, which is based on rewards and punishment. Motivation 2.0 states that humans also responded to the drive to seek rewards and avoid punishment. That worked fine for routine tasks, but incompatible with how we organize what we do, how we think about what we do, and how we do what we do. (20) This type of motivation workedShow MoreRelatedThe Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us By Daniel H. Pink1847 Words   |  8 PagesStudent Name Professor Name Class Name May 22, 2016 Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us by Daniel H. Pink The ability to extract joy and satisfaction from one’s work is recognized as largely being an inside job, not solely dependent upon external factors such as positive feedback in order for it to occur. 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Artificial and / or arbitrary restrictions imposed on field commands goes against all three of these keys to motivation. The field command no longer has the autonomy to assign their best member to train their boarding teams

Curriculum and Syllabus Design free essay sample

Changes in curriculum will be applied in 2013 has an aim to increase the curiosity of students and encourage students to be active. In the new curriculum, students are no longer the object but rather a subject to participate in developing the subject or materials.  This change, as an effect, a variety of standards in the education component will be change, such as content standards, process standards and competency standards. What about the standard of assessment? What will be assessed by teachers with different teaching system? Minister of Education and Culture Mohammad Nuh, said that the standard of assessment in the new curriculum is different from the previous curriculum. Remembering the goal to encourage students are active in each learning material, then one of component of a students assessment if the child is a lot to ask. B. AIMS 1. KTSP ( School Based Curriculum ) The purpose of KTSP : * The general objective is to make the implementation of KTSP and empower independent education units through the provision of authority (autonomy) to educational institution and encourage schools to do participatory decision-making in curriculum development. * In particular, the implementation of KTSP purpose is to: a) Improve the quality of education through self-reliance and initiative in developing school curriculum, manage and empower the resources available. b) Raising peoples awareness in schools and the communities in developing curriculum through the return decisions together. ) Increase healthy competence among educational units to be achieved. Understand the purpose of the above, KTSP can be seen as a new approach in the development pattern of the curriculum in the context of regional autonomy being rolled out during this. Therefore, the KTSP needs to be applied by each educational unit, particularly relating to the seven terms as follows: a) School knows its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats for her so that schools can optimize the utilization of available resources to advance the agency. ) School knows the needs of the institution, in particular the educational input will be developed and utilized in the educational process in accordance with the development and needs of learners. c) Decisions made by the school better suited to meet the needs of the school because school who know best what is best for their schools. d) The involvement of all citizens in public schools and curriculum development create transparency and a healthy democracy, as well as more efficient and effective when controlled by the surrounding community. ) Schools can be responsible about the quality of education their respective governments, parents of students, the community at large dam, so he will try as much as possible. f) Schools can make a healthy competition with other schools to improve the quality of education through innovative efforts to support parents of students, the community, and local government. g) Schools can rapidly respond to the aspirations of the people and the rapidly changing environment, as well as accommodate the KTSP. 2. CURRICULUM 2013 Several reasons why this curriculum is made : a) Many corruption b) Students fights and drugs c) The previous curriculum only focus on cognitive aspect d) To follow the development of era, e) The previous curriculum has not been sensitive and responsive to social chan ge at local, national, and global,etc. * The goal of new curriculum : a. Students : * Make more creative, innovative, and more productive * To increase be able to observe, question, reason, and communicate (present), for which they obtain or what they know after receiving learning materials. Through this curriculum students are expected to have competency attitudes, skills and knowledge are much better so that later they can be successful in dealing with various problems and challenges of his time, into a better future. b. Teachers : * More enthusiastic in learning activities. c. ManajemenSatuanPendididkan : * Emphasizes to give of learning services including counseling and enrichment. * Anticipating the growing number of variations in learning activities d. Country. To improve competitiveness. * To increase international reputation, especially in the education sector. Follow the development of era. e. Society : * To obtain competent graduates * To improve the wealth C. IMPLEMENTATION The implementation of Curriculum 2013 The development of curriculum 2013 have been in RENCANA PEMBANGUNAN JANGKA MENENGAH NASIONAL (RPJMN) 2010-2014. The goal of this curriculum are increasing the balance competence between attitude, skill and knowledge. This competence supported by 4 pillar. There are, productive, creative, inovative and afective. In this curriculum not only focus on subject matter, but also the competence of graduate, competence standart, process standart, value standart. The old curriculum also has competence of graduate, competence standart, process standart, value standart. However, the both has difference. In the old, the subject decided first and then the competence, now the new curriculum, competence decided first and after that subject matter. The implementation to preparation curriculum 2013 1) Book If the curriculum will be repair, the book also have to change. If the book don’t be change, so the curriculum just as a â€Å"Macan Kertas†. The Government will prepare the main book for the teachers and students. Of course, two book difference in the content. ) Teacher training Because the implementation curriculum do step by step, so the teacher training do by process too. In elemntary school, the teachers are in the first class and fourth class, in junior high school, the teachers in seventh class, and in senior high school in the tenth class. 3) Management The management of school very important to supported the successful of a s chool, for example ; school report card. The role of management in the school also will be change. The Changes of elements in curriculum 2013 a) The standart competence of Graduated. There are any development and balence in the soft skilla and hard skills which include the aspect of attitude, skill and knowledge. b) The standart of process. The studied process which the previouse focus on the exploration, Elaboration, and Confirmation, now it complete with observasing, asking, processing, providing, conclusing and producing. Studying not only in the classroom, but also in the environment of school and societies. Teachers are not one source of study. The attitudes don’t teach in verbal studying, but through good example and model. c) The standart of content. The previouse competence which decrease from the subject matter and change into the subject that developed from competence. The competence to develope through; tematik integratif into all of subject matter (Elementary school), subject matter in SMP, Subject matter in SMA and vocational in SMK. d) The standart of value. The value according to the competence, to increase the strength of PAP (Penilaian Acuan Patokan), the value not only in level KD (Kompetensi Dasar) but also the contents of competence and SKL (Standart Kompetensi Lulusan). D. PROBLEMS AND STRENGTHS * Some of which the problem occurred from KTSP : 1. Competency-based curriculum is not fully appropriate with the demands of function and purpose of national education. 2. Some of the competencies required in accordance with development needs (eg, character education, active learning methodology, the balance of soft skills and hard skills, entrepreneurship) have not been accommodated in the curriculum. 3. The curriculum has not been sensitive and responsive to social change at local, national, and global. 4. Standards do not describe the learning process of learning the detailed sequence of opening up the possibility of diverse interpretations and lead to teacher-centered learning. . Standards of assessment have not led to the competency-based assessment (process and outcome) and not explicitly call for periodic remediation. 6. SBC requires a more detailed curriculum documents in order not to give rise to multiple interpretations. Each curriculum is implemented in Indonesia has the advantages of each depends on the situations and conditions in which the curriculum is implemented. KTSP has several advantages when compared to previous curriculum, especially curriculum 2004 or KBK. KTSP advantages include: * Promote the establishment of school autonomy in education. Encourage teachers, principals, and school management to further enhance creativity in organizing educational programs. * It is possible for every school to focus and develop specific subjects acceptable to the needs of students. CHAPTER 2 CONCLUTION AND SUMMARY The general objective is to make the implementation of SBC and empower independent education units through the provision of authority (autonomy) to educational institutions and encourage schools to conduct participatory decision-making in curriculum development. Curriculum development in 2013 was able to produce a productive Indonesian people, creative, innovative, and through strengthening affective attitude (know why), skills (know how), and knowledge (know what) are integrated. * In particular, the implementation of KTSP purpose is to: a) Improve the quality of education through self-reliance and initiative in developing school curriculum, manage and empower the resources available. b) Raising peoples awareness in schools and the communities in developing curriculum through the return decisions together. ) Increase healthy competence among educational units to be achieved. * The goal of new curriculum : a. Students : * Make more creative, innovative, and more productive * To increase be able to observe, question, reason, and communicate (present), for which they obtain or what they know after receiving learning materials. * Through this curriculum students are expected to have competency attitudes, skills and knowledge are much better so that later they can be successful in dealing with various problems and challenges of his time, into a better future. . Teachers : * More enthusiastic in learning activities. c. ManajemenSatuanPendididkan : * Emphasizes to give of learning services including counseling and enrichment. * Anticipating the growing number of variations in learning activities d. Country : * To improve competitiveness. * To increase international reputation, especially in the education sector. * Follow the development of era. e. Society : * To obtain competent graduates * To improve the wealth

Describe and Evaluate Two Approaches free essay sample

One proposed theory that answers this question is the Freudian argument, which states â€Å"people have an innate death drive that impels them to pursue their own downfall and death†2. This argument also concludes that people do harm themselves deliberately, even though they sometimes are not conscious of this. â€Å"Self-defeating behaviours are especially common when people feel that others view them less favourably than the people desire†1 Psychologists have constructed three models that explain different types of self-defeating behaviours, which are â€Å"distinguished by their varying degrees of intentionality†1 Three Models of Self-Destructiveness There are three models that represent self-defeating behaviours on the basis of â€Å"intentionality. †1 1. Primary self-destruction This model includes those human beings who deliberately and intentionally hurt themselves. Those in this group, usually intentionally choose an action that they know will bring harm to them. For Example masochism 2. The second conceptual model of self-defeating behaviour is called, â€Å"trade-off†1. This behaviour is done when a person knowingly makes a trade-off in a situation. It is when a person chooses a certain option that has some benefit but also has the potential to cause harm to the person as well. For Example When a person chooses to take up smoking. In a trade-off, the smoking harm to the self is accepted as a necessary accompaniment to achieving some other goal. In this trade-off model, the individual has multiple goals and desires, but the situation sets two of them in opposition. One type of trade-off is known as, â€Å"self-handicapping†1. (e. g. – health) In the trade-off, people will deliberately choose to do something that they know will harm them, so that if they fail later they are able to blame their failure on the bad choice they previously made. . The third are the counterproductive strategies. Self-defeating behaviours in which â€Å"the person neither desires nor foresees the harm to self. In this instance a person is pursuing a desirable outcome but chooses a strategy or approach that backfires and produces the opposite of the desired result. Thus, the person is pursuing a positive goal, but the person’s method of pursuing is negative. â € 1 For Example This type of behaviour is very common among young adults and usually results in some kind of â€Å"self-harmful outcomes†1. Reasons for Self-Defeating Behaviour People are more likely to behave in a self-defeating or destructive manner when either there are threats made to their ego, or when they have low self-esteem. When a person has a low self-esteem, they are more likely to be susceptible to having depression, anxiety and, emotional distress, which are problems that are usually directly related to a less favourable self-appraisal. â€Å"Emotional stress has also had a link to self-defeating behaviour. Anecdotal observations have long suggested that highly distraught people are more likely than others to do self destructive things. 3 Also, self-regulation failure is yet another supposed cause of self-defeating behaviours. Our self-regulation is related mostly to one’s self-control. Self-regulation allows a person to prepare herself to a certain situation and adapt to that situation. With self-regulation a person can either make sure they succeed, or fail in a certain situation. â€Å"Self regulation is presumably one of the major capacities that the human self has evolved in order to help bring about positive outcomes. When the self brings about negative outcomes, therefore, one could readily suspect that self-regulation has failed in some crucial way. Ultimately, self-defeating behaviour may often result from the failure of the self to regulate its behaviours properly†3 Why beat yourself up†¦? Experiments have proved, and psychologists have shown, that regular people do in fact perform behaviours that can be self-detrimental. The three models of self-destructiveness illustrate the different ways in which a person behaves in a self-defeating way, depending on each person’s level of â€Å"intentionality† to harm oneself. Human beings are more likely to behave in more self- defeating ways depending different circumstances, such as a person’s mental health. If a person is depressed or anxious then that person is more likely to behave in a self-destructive way than a person would if they were mentally healthy. Another important factor that contributes to self-destructive behaviour is seclusion. A â€Å"strong feeling of social inclusion is important for enabling the individual to use the human capacity for self-regulation in ways that will preserve and protect the self and promote the selfs best long term interests of health and well-being. 4 Perpetual Motion Learning to treat oneself with instantaneous subconscious response, in particular one that reduces psychological tension and intimately physical tension, is rewarding. Once we have time to reflect on whether our actions are mentally ethical we can rectify our behaviour for the next time. Some of us of course will not reflect on this cyclic behaviour and so it becomes habitual, making its modification more difficult. We find ourselves even when fully aware deflecting the real issues of behaviour with a minimising techniques. Effectively it takes away the possibility of choosing a healthier action or behaviour in the future†¦Ã¢â‚¬ 5 e. g. Head in the sand, deflecting true emotions with humour, anaesthesia/drug and alcohol use, keeping busy as to not have time to reflect, passing the blame, and â€Å"there is no point anyway†¦Ã¢â‚¬ 5 The Fear Factory â€Å"Our dependency makes slaves out of us, especially if this dependency is a dependency of our self esteem. If you need e ncouragement, praise, pats on the back from everybody, then you make everybody your judge†¦Ã¢â‚¬ 6 We are creatures of habit and the fear generated by change can often feel verwhelming. But ultimately this in itself can become a restrictive boundary to an open, honest and progressive existence. All this deflection of true feelings, and the reality that we constantly disown or blame behaviour on any number of external influences, leaves us with little choice. â€Å"We lose the holistic nature of life and end up cutting the positive ties between the body’s psychical symptoms and the mind, we ignore the inner voice that wants us to be happy and healthy and make the right choices and farm out the responsibility on to the external forces onto which we place blame†¦Ã¢â‚¬ 5 e. g. f only†¦ When working through the challenge of self-defeating behaviours it is important that a client-led way of working is established. A therapist’s objective perspective will al low her to realise the client’s difficult behaviours and focus the therapy. But if the clients are in a state of crisis it may not be the right time to approach all of his self-defeating behaviours at once. There is credible reason for the human psyche to be afraid of change and this level of change will discourage the client attending therapy, and potentially nurture further self-defeating behaviours induced by failure. For example clients going through post traumatic stress disorder or extreme grief will not have the emotional perspective to address other behaviours in a healing way. Depressive patients may have emotional nuances that affect the therapeutic session minute by minute; ascertaining a positive session in these cases is paramount. As with all therapy, â€Å" it is vital that client empathy is sustained, challenges are gauged empathetically and that reassessment of the course of the therapy is a continual process shared with a supervisor on a regular basis. †5 Therapeutic Treatment for Self-Defeating Behaviour The PCC Technique Perhaps the most influential within this movement; Carl Rogers, introduced person-centred therapy. Which holds that intrinsic tendencies toward self-actualization (the personal psychological goal of the client) can be expressed and supported within a therapeutic relationship. Client-centred therapy operates according to three basic core principles that reflect the attitude of the therapist to the client: 1. The therapist is congruent with the client. 2. The therapist provides the client with unconditional positive regard (UPR). . The therapist shows empathetic understanding to the client. Carl Rogers took this a little further and proposed that therapy could be simpler, warmer and more optimistic than that carried out by behavioural or psychodynamic psychologists. The philosophy of Rogerian Counselling, or person-centred is to encourage an environment that will stimulate the client towards behavioural awareness, wit hout the intervention of the therapist suggestion. The therapist’s sole directive is to create an environment of acceptance, to offer warmth and empathy, without judgment. The therapist accomplishes this by reflecting this sensory awareness back to the client; the therapist induces a relaxed non-confrontational manner. Which will motivate the client toward feelings of safety and will therefore be more comfortable with expressing their inner feelings, and ultimately an acceptance of their own maladaptive behaviour. With the client encouraged by good feelings strengthening the inner-self, the therapist can explore self-defeating behaviours. Resulting in a complex and thorough knowledge of the psyche of the client. Allowing the therapist an insight into the pattern of self-defeating behaviour. Throughout this process with self-awareness and therapeutic encouragement, the client is following a path of self-actualisation. As the client becomes closer to self-actualisation they feel empowered, and more comfortable with their own thoughts and feelings, and are prepared to face the fear of change. And ultimately less defensive and subservient to theirs, and others peoples feelings, and opinions. Therefore discouraging continued maladaptive behaviour. The CBT Technique Therapists use several different techniques in the course of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy to help patients examine and change thoughts and behaviours. These include: Validity Testing The therapist asks the patient to defend his or her thoughts and beliefs. If the patient cannot produce objective evidence supporting his or her assumptions, the invalidity, or faulty nature, is exposed. Cognitive Rehearsal The patient is asked to imagine a difficult situation he has encountered in the past, and then works with the therapist to practice how to cope without a self-defeating approach. When the patient is confronted with a similar situation again, the rehearsed behaviour will be drawn on to manage it. Guided Discovery The therapist asks the patient a series of questions designed to guide the patient towards the discovery of his or her self-defeating behaviours. Writing in a Journal Clients keep a detailed written diary of situations that arise in everyday life, the thoughts and emotions surrounding them, and the behaviours that accompany them. The therapist and patient then review the journal together to discover maladaptive thought patterns and how these thoughts impact behaviour. Homework – A chance for the client to become acutely aware of the way they generate thought process and behaviour, whilst in the calm mental and physical space of their own lives. Modelling Role-playing exercises allow the therapist to act out appropriate reactions to different situations. The patient can then model correct behaviour. Systematic Positive Reinforcement Human behaviour is routinely motivated and rewarded by positive reinforcement, and a more specialised version of this phenomenon (systematic positive reinforcement) is used by behaviour-oriented therapists. Rules are established that specify particular behaviours that are to be reinforced, and a reward system is set up. Just as providing reinforcement strengthens behaviours, withholding it weakens them. Eradicating undesirable behaviour by deliberately withholding reinforcement is another popular treatment method called extinction. Aversive Conditioning This technique employs the principles of classical conditioning to lessen the appeal of a behaviour that is difficult to change because it is either very habitual or temporarily rewarding. The client is exposed to an unpleasant stimulus while engaged in or thinking about the behaviour in question. Eventually the self-defeating behaviour itself becomes associated with unpleasant rather than pleasant feelings. In counterconditioning, a maladaptive response is weakened by the strengthening of a response that is incompatible with it. A well-known type of counterconditioning is systematic desensitization, which counteracts the anxiety connected with a particular behaviour or situation by inducing a relaxed response to it instead. Initial Consultation Because cognitive-behavioural therapy is a collaborative effort between therapist and patient, a comfortable working relationship is critical to successful treatment. A consultation session is similar to an interview session, and it allows both patient and therapist to get to know one another. During the consultation, the therapist gathers information to make an initial assessment of the patient and to recommend both direction and goals for treatment. The patient has the opportunity to learn about the therapists professional credentials, his/her approach to treatment, and other relevant issues. PCC Vs CBT Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and Person-Centred Therapy (PCT) have been shown to bring about positive changes in therapy. CBT and PCT, like all single-theory approaches, have limitations. Research suggests that when the change-producing techniques of  CBT and PCT are combined and applied, counselling is more effective. The strength of CBT is its emphasis on process and action (i. e. goal setting, collaborative action, etc. ), but it has been criticized as lacking an emphasis on the factors that develop a strong therapeutic relationship. The strength of PCT is its emphasis on the relationship (creating a strong working alliance), but it has been criticised as lacking in structure. By combining CBT and PCT, a â€Å"super ordinate clinical framework† is created that emphasises both a positive relationship (PCT) and provides structure and interventions (CBT). 8 It seems a very productive integrated approach, PCT develops a client relationship, encouraging confidence not just to trust the therapist but to express and ultimately reflect on the clients behaviour. And CBT can seamlessly adapt the client psychotherapeutic response into a proactive result. Conclusion â€Å"It is no measure of health to be well adjusted to a profoundly sick society. † Krishnamurti7 A healthy society should encourage us to take responsibility for our actions, our lives and health and any community that fails to do this is also failing its people. Time and again the western world takes pity and frequently criticises the simplicity of the life demands, family values and spirituality of the eastern world. An existence perceived as visceral, ancient, even naive. But their contentment seems to have little standing on what they own, or know, but more on how they feel. Ironically as a culture we lack confidence in own lives; in our own existence. As a result we force-feed the rest of the world with our own celebrity led culture, over the counter domestic drug use, and a perceived democratic rule. As if to naturalise our own behaviours, relying on a veneer of gloss surrounding a deeply troubled core. Even our respect for each other can be conditional, selling the next best thing at any cost. Including the sexualisation of young individuals, normally woman, sex as a crass marketing ploy. At what cost to the young†¦? A hollow message of materialism, and the pretence of momentary ownership. We need ownership of a different kind, one of stability and mental resilience. Is that our responsibility, as individuals†¦? Our culture is one that encourages the short-term fix, a distraction from our most valuable responsibility; our own mental health. We have a responsibility not just to ourselves but for the culture we create from the minds and souls of the young we foster, to every interaction, and every provoking thought. We even dissect and criticise the thought process and behaviour of pressured, perhaps troubled individuals, for TV entertainment.